Many Languages, Many Realities: The Social and Psychological Effects of Immigrant Multilingualism and its Policies

Mar 30

“The individual's whole experience is built upon the plan of his language.”

Henri Delacroix

Introduction

My parents were lucky. When they first arrived in Canada from the Philippines when I was four years old, they were already fluent in English. Growing up in households and schools where Tagalog and English were spoken gave them a significant advantage in finding employment and settling in Canada. Like many other immigrants, they still faced significant obstacles along the way, yet still, their fluency in English allowed them to continue their client-based careers in finance, where strong communication skills are essential.

For many of the hundreds of thousands of immigrants arriving in Canada each year, however, acquiring the ability to communicate in English or French is not always straightforward. In a global context, Canada's linguistic diversity is astonishing: nearly 50 immigrants enter the country for every child born domestically, and more than one-eighth of the population primarily speaks a language other than English or French at home [1]. While linguistic diversity is inherently woven into the fabric of Canadian society, the experiences, opportunities, and policies surrounding language remain largely overlooked in public discourse and policymaking.

This article examines how multilingualism shapes the immigrant experience. Drawing upon insights from psychology, linguistics, and sociology, it highlights the dual nature of multilingualism as both a strength and a challenge, and considers how government policies could better support immigrants in navigating these dynamics.

Language as a Bridge and a Barrier

Proficiency in a host country's language is the cornerstone of successful immigration—not only to fulfill bureaucratic requirements, of course, but also to serve as a foundation for social and economic integration. For instance, Statistics Canada reports that immigrants fluent in English or French tend to earn significantly higher incomes and feel a stronger sense of belonging than those with limited proficiency [2]. Additionally, individuals fluent in both English and French earn higher average salaries than those fluent in one language alone [3]. While this "bilingual advantage" may stem from occupational demands, it may also reflect the value of choosing to forge social connections across cultural divides — a skill desirable in virtually any industry.

“Proficiency in a host country's language is the cornerstone of successful immigration—not only to fulfill bureaucratic requirements, of course, but also to serve as a foundation for social and economic integration.”

Nonetheless, multilingualism comes with a unique duality. While speaking a foreign language can foster connections within one's ethnic community, it can slow the acquisition of a host country's language. This dynamic is referred to as “acculturation,” whereby immigrants strive to maintain their cultural heritage while adapting to new societal norms. Studies on acculturation suggest that bilingual immigrants can feel "caught between worlds," especially when they are pressured to learn new languages as a result of societal pressure rather than personal motivation [4].

This duality is evident in a study published in the Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, which found that immigrants who primarily spoke their native language at home reported fewer interactions with their non-immigrant peers, regardless of their language use in other settings [5]. These findings suggest that an individual's willingness, motivation, and ultimately, ability to adapt is inherently linked to both the desire and the opportunity to use a language in a practical setting.

Multilingualism from a Cognitive Perspective

The complex nature of acculturation highlights how multilingualism affects the immigrant brain in several ways, both cognitively and emotionally. While immigrants who primarily speak a foreign language at home often report higher levels of mental distress [5], other studies on U.S. immigrant populations suggest that speaking multiple languages at home may have a protective effect against such challenges [6]. This protective effect may stem from increased access to social and economic opportunities. However, one overlooked factor is the role of language in mental health service accessibility and emotional coping mechanisms. For instance, immigrants in Canada with limited proficiency in English or French are significantly less likely to be aware of or utilize mental health resources [7]. Furthermore, individuals may struggle to express their emotions in a second language due to emotional blunting, a phenomenon that makes it harder to articulate feelings or benefit from therapeutic interventions [8].

“…an individual's willingness, motivation, and ultimately, ability to adapt is inherently linked to both the desire and the opportunity to use a language in a practical setting.”

Multilingualism is also associated with enhanced cognitive abilities, including improved problem-solving, memory, and multitasking. Research demonstrates that bilingual individuals excel in tasks requiring executive function, such as task-switching and attention control— traits collectively known as "cognitive flexibility" [9,10]. However, the mental effort required to alternate between languages can be taxing. Studies show that this frequent language switching, particularly across different contexts, may contribute to cognitive fatigue and stress [11].

While multilingualism is indeed a skill to be respected and celebrated, these challenges underscore the need for policies that alleviate the cognitive and emotional demands of language acquisition for immigrants.

Language Learning Accessibility for Immigrants

Firstly, it is important to note that while the need for language learning programs continues to grow, many government-led initiatives are complicated and often fall short of fully meeting immigrant needs. For instance, many international students come to countries like the United States to learn English and eventually obtain permanent residency. However, the U.S.'s classification of "English Learner" (EL) in public schools can have unintended consequences. A study in Educational Researcher found that mislabeling even moderately proficient students as ELs can result in unnecessary segregation and stigmatization, limiting their academic and social opportunities. But conversely, failing to identify students in need of language support leaves them struggling to keep up in mainstream classrooms [12].

“…bilingual immigrants can feel ‘caught between worlds,’ especially when they are pressured to learn new languages as a result of societal pressure rather than personal motivation.”

A potential solution to this "misclassification" issue can be found in free, optional programs such as Canada's "Language Instruction for Newcomers to Canada" (LINC), which provides non-mandatory language training for eligible newcomers. However, the program's eligibility criteria are somewhat counterintuitive: applicants must have their permanent residency application approved in principle, which already requires English or French proficiency. Expanding such programs to include temporary workers and international students who aspire to become permanent residents would make this language-learning resource more accessible and equitable.

Reconsidering Language Proficiency Tests

In Canada, applicants for permanent residency are required to pass language proficiency tests. While language tests may initially seem to be an optimal solution for evaluating an immigrant's readiness for social integration, such tests are often prone to error and are not necessarily good indicators of practical conversational skills [13,14]. Unfortunately, this issue is not easily solvable, as high-stakes tests such as the TOEFL and IELTS assess millions of test takers per year and thus face inherent limitations due to constraints on time and resources.

So how can we better evaluate the two-way conversational ability of incoming immigrants? A solution may lie in the screening interviews required for immigration to Canada. These interviews, conducted upon arrival, could be a convenient opportunity to gauge surface-level conversational proficiency. However, the current format primarily focuses on simple administrative questions about health, personal belongings, and the like [15], whose answers can be easily rehearsed and do not assess day-to-day communication skills. Introducing broader, open-ended questions — such as "What do you like about Canada?" or "What challenges do you anticipate here?" — could provide a brief but meaningful assessment of an applicant's conversational ability.

Next Steps

Multilingualism among immigrants remains a complex and multifaceted phenomenon, but it cannot—and should not—be overlooked. As language can shape identity, opportunity, and psychological well-being, multilingualism can offer significant benefits such as resilience and cognitive flexibility, but also comes with several unique challenges.

As Canada continues to embrace its rapidly growing immigrant population, it is more essential than ever that we learn to celebrate and support linguistic diversity while ensuring newcomers have access to language-learning resources. By understanding the intricate relationship between language and the immigrant experience, we can build a society that not only accommodates diversity but thrives because of it.

**Franco Miguel Valencia** (he/him) is a third-year undergraduate student at the University of Toronto studying Neuroscience, Psychology, and Computer Science. As someone deeply interested in the increasingly prevalent role of technology on human cognition and daily lives, he believes in the importance of advocacy for knowledge dissemination and mental well-being. When not coding or conducting research on global health disparities, he can be found reading sci-fi or watching Steins;Gate.

References

1. Houle, R. Multilingualism of Canadian households. Government of Canada, Statistics Canada https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/as-sa/98-200-X/2021014/98-200-X2021014-eng.cfm (2023).

2. Xu, L. & Hou, F. Official language proficiency and immigrant labour market outcomes: Evidence from test-based multidimensional measures of language skills. Government of Canada, Statistics Canada https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/36-28-0001/2023001/article/00002-eng.htm (2023).

3. Knowledge of official languages by income statistics, age and gender: Canada, provinces and territories, census metropolitan areas and census agglomerations with parts. Government of Canada, Statistics Canada https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810020201&pickMembers%5B0%5D=1.1&pickMembers%5B1%5D=2.1&pickMembers%5B2%5D=3.1 (2022).

4. Berry, J. W. Immigration, Acculturation, and Adaptation. Applied Psychology 46, 5–34 (1997).

5. Zhou, M. & Bankston, C. L., III. Social Capital and the Adaptation of the Second Generation: The Case of Vietnamese Youth in New Orleans. International Migration Review 28, 821–845 (1994).

6. Tran, T. V. Bilingualism and Subjective Well-Being in a Sample of Elderly Hispanics. Journal of Social Service Research 20, 1–19 (1994).

7.Kirmayer, L. J. et al. Common mental health problems in immigrants and refugees: general approach in primary care. Canadian Medical Association Journal 183, E959–E967 (2010).

8. Dewaele, J. & Pavlenko, A. Emotion Vocabulary in Interlanguage. Language Learning 52, 263–322 (2002).

9. Adi‐Japha, E., Berberich‐Artzi, J. & Libnawi, A. Cognitive Flexibility in Drawings of Bilingual Children. Child Development 81, 1356–1366 (2010).

10. Seçer, I. Skills of Cognitive Flexibility in Monolingual and Bilingual Younger Adults. The Journal of General Psychology 143, 172–184 (2016).

11. Green, D. W. & Abutalebi, J. Language control in bilinguals: The adaptive control hypothesis. Journal of Cognitive Psychology25, 515–530 (2013).

Franco Miguel Valencia

Franco (he/him) is a third-year undergraduate student at the University of Toronto studying Neuroscience, Psychology, and Computer Science. As someone deeply interested in the increasingly prevalent role of technology on human cognition and daily lives, he believes in the importance of advocacy for knowledge dissemination and mental well-being. When not coding or conducting research on global health disparities, he can be found reading sci-fi or watching Steins;Gate.